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Language families and languages

Most languages are known to belong to language families ("families" hereforth). An accurately identified family is a phylogenetic unit, i.e., all its members derive from a common ancestor. The ancestor is very seldom known to us directly, since most languages have a very short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many of the features of the common ancestor of related languages by applying the comparative method -- a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th-century linguist August Schleicher. It can demonstrate the family status of many of the groupings listed below.

Language families can be subdivided into smaller units, conventionally referred to as "branches" (because the history of a language family is often represented as a "tree" diagram).

The common ancestor of a family (or branch) is known as its "protolanguage". For example, the reconstructible protolanguage of the well-known Indo-European family is called Proto-Indo-European (not known from written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing). Sometimes a protolanguage can be identified with a historically known language. Thus, provincial dialects of Latin ("Vulgar Latin") gave rise to the modern Romance languages, so the Proto-Romance language is more or less identical with Latin (if not exactly with the literary Latin of the Classical writers), and dialects of Old Norse are the protolanguage to Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Icelandic.

Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as language isolates.

Largest families

According to the Ethnologue (a comprehensive listing of the world's languages), the largest language families are:

Major language families (grouped geographically without regard to inter-family relationship)

In the following, each "bulleted" item is a known language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of the dozen or two of independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are not a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.

Families of Africa and southwest Asia

See main article, African languages

Families of Europe, and north, west, and south Asia

  1. Indo-European languages
  2. Dravidian languages (some include Dravidian languages in a larger Elamo-Dravidian language family.)
  3. Caucasian languages (generally thought to be two separate families, North Caucasian and South Caucasian)
  4. Altaic languages (disputed)
  5. Uralic languages
  6. Hurro-Urartian languages (extinct)
  7. Yukaghir languages (Some include Yukaghir in the Uralic family.)
  8. Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
  9. Yenisei-Ostyak languages
  10. Andamanese languages

Families of east and southeast Asia and the Pacific

  1. Australian Aboriginal languages (multiple families)
  2. Austroasiatic languages
  3. Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) languages
  4. Hmong-Mien languages
  5. Japonic languages
  6. Papuan languages (multiple families)
  7. Sino-Tibetan languages (some include Tai-Kadai and Hmong-Mien in the Sino-Tibetan family)
  8. Tai-Kadai languages

Families of North America

See main article, Native American languages
  1. Algic languages (incl. Algonquian languages) (29)
  2. Caddoan languages (5)
  3. Chimakuan languages (2)
  4. Chinookan languages (3)
  5. Chumashan languages (6)
  6. Comecrudan languages (3)
  7. Coosan languages (2)
  8. Eskimo-Aleut languages (7)
  9. Guacurian languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8)
  10. Iroquoian languages (11)
  11. Kalapuyan languages (3)
  12. Kiowa-Tanoan languages (7)
  13. Maiduan languages (4)
  14. Mayan languages (North America & Central America) (31)
  15. Muskogean languages (6)
  16. Na-Dené languages (40)
  17. Oto-Manguean languages (North America & Central America) (27)
  18. Palaihnihan languages (2)
  19. Plateau Penutian (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan) (4)
  20. Pomoan languages (7)
  21. Salishan languages (23)
  22. Shastan languages (4)
  23. Siouan languages (16)
  24. Tequistlatecan languages (3)
  25. Totonacan languages (2)
  26. Tsimishianic languages (2)
  27. Utian languages (12)
  28. Uto-Aztecan languages (31)
  29. Wakashan languages (6)
  30. Wintuan languages (4)
  31. Yokutsan languages (3)
  32. Yukian languages (2)
  33. Yuman-Cochimi languages (11)

Families of Central America and South America

See main article, Native American languages
  1. Alacalufan languages (South America) (2)
  2. Algic languages (North America & Central America) (29)
  3. Arauan languages (South America) (8)
  4. Araucanian languages (South America) (2)
  5. Arawakan languages (South America, Caribbean) (60)
  6. Arutani-Sape languages (South America) (2)
  7. Aymaran languages (South America) (3)
  8. Barbacoan languages (South America) (7)
  9. Cahuapanan languages (South America) (2)
  10. Carib languages (South America) (29)
  11. Chapacura-Wanham languages (South America) (5)
  12. Chibchan languages (Central America & South America) (22)
  13. Choco languages (South America) (10)
  14. Chon languages (South America) (2)
  15. Comecrudan languages (North America & Central America) (3)
  16. Guacurian languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8)
  17. Harakmbet languages (South America) (2)
  18. Jicaquean languages (Central America)
  19. Jivaroan languages (South America) (4)
  20. Katukinan languages (South America) (3)
  21. Lencan languages (Central America)
  22. Lule-Vilela languages (South America) (1)
  23. Macro-Ge languages (South America) (32)
  24. Maku languages (South America) (6)
  25. Mascoian languages (South America) (5)
  26. Mataco-Guaicuru languages (South America) (11)
  27. Mayan languages (Central America) (31)
  28. Misumalpan languages (Central America)
  29. Mixe-Zoquean languages (Central America) (19)
  30. Mosetenan languages (South America) (1)
  31. Mura languages (South America) (1)
  32. Na-Dené languages (North America & Central America) (40)
  33. Nambiquaran languages (South America) (5)
  34. Oto-Manguean languages (North America & Central America) (27)
  35. Paezan languages (South America) (1)
  36. Panoan languages (South America) (30)
  37. Peba-Yaguan languages (South America) (2)
  38. Quechuan languages (South America) (46)
  39. Salivan languages (South America) (2)
  40. Tacanan languages (South America) (6)
  41. Tequistlatecan languages (Central America) (3)
  42. Totonacan languages (Central America) (2)
  43. Tucanoan languages (South America) (25)
  44. Tupi languages (South America) (70)
  45. Uru-Chipaya languages (South America) (2)
  46. Uto-Aztecan languages (North America & Central America) (31)
  47. Witotoan languages (South America) (6)
  48. Xincan languages (Central America)
  49. Yanomam languages (South America) (4)
  50. Yuman-Cochimi languages (North America & Central America) (11)
  51. Zamucoan languages (South America) (2)
  52. Zaparoan languages (South America) (7)

Proposed language super-families

Creole languages, pidgins, and trade languages

Language isolates

Central & South America

  1. Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia)
  2. Alagüilac (Guatemala)
  3. Andoque language (Colombia, Peru)
  4. Baenan (Brazil)
  5. Betoi (Columbia)
  6. Camsá language (Columbia)
  7. Canichana (Bolivia)
  8. Cayubaba language (Bolivia)
  9. Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
  10. Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
  11. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  12. Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero)
  13. Culle (Peru)
  14. Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina)
  15. Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão)
  16. Gorgotoqui (Bolivia)
  17. Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco)
  18. Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca)
  19. Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  20. Itonama language (Bolivia)
  21. Jotí (Venezuela)
  22. Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará)
  23. Koayá (Brazil: Rondônia)
  24. Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  25. Mapudungu (Chile, Argentina)
  26. Maratino (northeastern Mexico)
  27. Movima (Bolivia)
  28. Munichi (Peru)
  29. Nambiquaran (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  30. Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas)
  31. Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco)
  32. Omurano (Peru)
  33. Otí (Brazil: São Paulo)
  34. Pankararú language (Brazil: Pernambuco)
  35. Puelche language (Chile)
  36. Puinave language (Columbia)
  37. Puquina (Bolivia)
  38. Quinigua (northeast Mexico)
  39. Sabela (Ecuador, Peru)
  40. Seri (Mexico: Sonora)
  41. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  42. Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)
  43. Tarascan (a.k.a. Purépecha) (Mexico: Michoacán)
  44. Taushiro (Peru)
  45. Tequiraca (Peru)
  46. Ticuna language (Colombia, Peru, Brazil)
  47. Tuxá language (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco)
  48. Warao language (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)
  49. Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco)
  50. Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba)
  51. Yámana language (a.k.a Yagan) (Chile)
  52. Yuracare language (Bolivia)
  53. Yuri (Colombia, Brazil)
  54. Yurumanguí (Columbia)

North America

  1. Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas)
  2. Alsea (US: Oregon)
  3. Aranama-Tamique (US: Texas)
  4. Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas)
  5. Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland)
  6. Calusa (US: Florida)
  7. Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington)
  8. Chimariko (US: California)
  9. Chitimacha (US: Lousiania)
  10. Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
  11. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  12. Esselen (US: California)
  13. Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)
  14. Karankawa (US: Texas)
  15. Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) (US: California)
  16. Keres (US: New Mexico)
  17. Konomihu (US: California)
  18. Kutenai language (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)
  19. Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana)
  20. Salinan (US: California)
  21. Siuslaw (US: Oregon)
  22. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  23. Takelma (US: Oregon)
  24. Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia)
  25. Tonkawa (US: Texas)
  26. Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)
  27. Washo (US: California, Nevada)
  28. Yana (US: California)
  29. Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma)
  30. Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)

Asia

Europe

Sign languages

  1. [Adamorobe Sign Language]] (AdaSL)
  2. [American Sign Language]] (ASL)
  3. [Auslan]], used in Australia
  4. [British Sign Language]] (BSL)
  5. [Dutch Sign Language]] "Nederlandse Gebarentaal" (NGT)
  6. [Quebec Sign Language]] (LSQ)
  7. [French Sign Language]] (LSF)
  8. [Flemish Sign Language]] "Vlaamse Gebarentaal" (VGT)
  9. [German Sign Language]] "Deutsche Gebärdensprache" (DGS)
  10. [German-Swiss Sign Language]] "Deutschschweizer Gebärdensprache" (DSGS)
  11. [Irish Sign Language]] (ISL)
  12. [Nicaraguan Sign Language]] (LSN)
  13. [Taiwanese Sign Language]] (TSL)

Other natural languages of special interest


External links

Bibilography

  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
See also:
| Azerbaijani language | Tocharian languages | Albanian language | Celtic languages | Indo-European languages | Armenian language | Baltic languages | List of Albanian languages | List of Tosk languages | Anatolian languages | Germanic languages | Historical linguistics | Indo-Iranian languages | Italic languages | Slavic languages | Dene-Caucasian languages | Altaic languages | Turkic languages | Indonesian language | List of endangered languages | ISO 639 |
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